This historical overview of leadership theory and research with an eye for commonalities provides an opportunity for integration. Early unproductive research focused on personality traits and behaviors. A recognition of the more complex nature of the phenomenon resulted in the development of contingency theories that examined leader characteristics and behavior in the context of situational parameters. The 1970s brought an awareness that perceptions of leaders by followers and others, and perceptions of followers by leaders, were influenced by cognitive biases arising from prior expectations and information-processing schema. Ironically, attention was belatedly drawn to the study of female leaders, who were often the victim of cognitive biases and negative assumptions. Recent research has reflected on the role of cultural differences in leadership processes and has been drawn again into the search for outstanding leaders with universally effective characteristics. The article concludes with an integration of current knowledge in leadership effectiveness.For much of its history, leadership theory and the empirical supporting research have been regarded as a fractured and confusing set of contradictory findings and assertions without coherence or interpretability. In this article T argue that a considerable commonality of well-accepted findings points the way toward a successful and useful integration of current knowledge. That integration, based on the key functions performed by effective leaders, begins to answer the question of how good leaders behave and raises intriguing questions about the personal characteristics of leaders that facilitate those behaviors. This article takes an historical perspective, and the analysis is divided into four periods: (a) the period prior to the presentation of Fiedler's (1964) contingency model; (b) the period from 1965 to 1975, focusing on the development and elaboration of contingency theories; (c) the period from 1975 to 1985, when cognitive theories and concerns about gender differences arose; and (d) the period since 1985, which has most extensively focused on transformational theories and cultural influences. The historical analysis is followed by a presentation of an

Category	Quartile
心理学	3
心理学, 心理学社会	4

Leadership research and theory: A functional integration.

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Category	Quartile
PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL	3