Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Abstract This study addresses recent changes in the built environment of U.S. metropolitan areas. The confluence of recent economic and sociocultural change has led to the emergence of a number of distinctive new urban settings. This process is interpreted as part of a broader, epochal change in the dynamics of contemporary capitalism. The particular implications of this transformation for the supply and demand of elements of the built environment involve changes in the organization and product mix of developers and construction companies, in the roles and professional orientations of architects and planners, and in commodity aesthetics and patterns of consumption among a "new bourgeoisie." The imprint of these changes on the built environment is illustrated with reference to the example of the Washington metropolitan area. Among the new settings and landscape elements identified here are private master-planned communities, high-tech corridors, mixed-use developments, "festival" settings, gentrified neighborhoods, preserved historic buildings and neighborhoods, and postmodern architecture. Key Words: architecturebuilt environmentflexible accumulationpostmodernityurban landscapeWashingtonDC

Paul L. Knox

The Restless Urban Landscape: Economic and Sociocultural Change and the Transformation of Metropolitan Washington, DC

不安宁的城市景观：经济与社会文化变迁及大华盛顿特区的转型

Despite spending more than any other nation on medical care per person, the United States ranks behind other industrialized nations in key health performance measures. A main cause is the deep disparities in access to care and health outcomes. Federal programs such as the designations of Medically Underserved Areas/Populations and Health Professional Shortage Areas are designed to boost the number of health professionals serving these areas and to help alleviate the access problem. Their effectiveness relies first and foremost on an accurate measure of accessibility so that resources can be allocated to truly needy areas. Various measures of accessibility need to be integrated into one framework for comparison and evaluation. Optimization methods can be used to improve the distribution and supply of health care providers to maximize service coverage, minimize travel needs of patients, limit the number of facilities, and maximize health or access equality. Inequality in health care access comes at a personal and societal price, evidenced in disparities in health outcomes, including late-stage cancer diagnosis. This review surveys recent literature on the three named issues with emphasis on methodological advancements and implications for public policy.

Fahui Wang

Measurement, Optimization, and Impact of Health Care Accessibility: A Methodological Review

医疗卫生可及性的测量、优化及其影响：方法学综述

ABSTRACT The walls of early Chinese cities were ramparts made of compressed earth, but since about the fifteenth century, bricks and cut stones have been used to face the earth walls. Most imperial capitals and many important cities in the north had the walls of rectangular shape. In areas of rugged relief, however, a square form was usually replaced by one of irregular shape, determined in many cases by topographic conditions. The size of the walled area and the elaboration of wall construction were normally directly proportional to the rank of the city in the administrative hierarchy. The size of the enclosed area of the typical walled city decreases southward, indicative of the magnitude of regional urbanization in Ming times or earlier. At later dates, an outer wall was often erected to enclose settlement that had spread outside the city, and in many cases "multiple cities"were developed at the same locality. The Chinese walled city presented a uniform appearance unrelieved by the taller structures typical of the European city; but in comparison with many cities of the West, its internal structure was relatively flexible.

SEN-DOU CHANG

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF CHINESE WALLED CITIES

关于中国城墙城市形态的一些观察

Despite considerable progress in recent geographic information systems (GIS) research (especially on public-participation GIS), the critical discourse on GIS in the 1990s does not seem to have affected GIS practices in geographic research in significant ways. Development in critical GIS practice has been quite limited to date, and GIS and critical geographies remain two separate, if not overtly antagonistic, worlds. This suggests that critical engagement that seeks to conceive and materialize the critical potential of GIS for geographic research is still sorely needed. In this article, I explore the possibilities for this kind of critical engagement through revisiting some of the central arguments in the critical discourse from feminist perspectives. I examine whether GIS methods are inherently incompatible with feminist epistemologies through interrogating their connection with positivist scientific practices and visualization technologies. Bearing in mind the limitations of current GIS, I explore several ways in which GIS methods may be used to enrich feminist geographic research. I propose to reimagine GIS as a method in feminist geography and describe feminist visualization as a possible critical practice in feminist research. I argue that GIS can be re-envisioned and used in feminist geography in ways that are congenial to feminist epistemologies and politics. These alternative practices represent a new kind of critical engagement with GIS that is grounded on the critical agency of the GIS user/researcher.

Mei-Po Kwan

Feminist Visualization: Re-envisioning GIS as a Method in Feminist Geographic Research

女性主义可视化：重构地理信息系统作为女性主义地理研究的方法

Agreement between public policy decision makers and geographic information systems and visualization researchers about the importance of uncertainty in decision support sits in contrast to a disconnect in approaches to incorporating uncertainty into decision support tools. This disconnect does not arise from how these two groups define uncertainty but instead occurs because they approach uncertainty from different problem perspectives (Miller et al. 2008; Pohl 2011). Public policy decision makers regularly contend with uncertainty based on how proposed policies will affect the future, resulting in a solutions-oriented approach that relates uncertainty of future conditions to policy outcomes. For researchers, uncertainty more often reflects unknowns in data values or modeling processes, such as the difference between a measured or predicted value and the actual value, resulting in a knowledge-production approach that relates uncertainty to the validity and legitimacy of methods, models, and data to produce knowledge. The research presented here contends that this gap between research and practice (Brown and Vari 1992; von Winterfeldt 2013) stems from these differing perspectives. To bridge this gap, we examine decision science theories to explain decision makers' solutions-oriented approach to uncertainty. Decision science is concerned with understanding and improving how individuals or groups identify problems, make decisions, and learn from the outcomes. We then present a new methodology, implicit uncertainty visualization, that reflects how decision makers contend with uncertainty. Bridging this gap opens up opportunities to develop visualization methods and tools that help decision makers better deal with uncertainty in practice.

Stephanie Deitrick

Elizabeth A. Wentz

Developing Implicit Uncertainty Visualization Methods Motivated by Theories in Decision Science

发展基于决策科学理论的隐性不确定性可视化方法

This article draws on several empirical regularities underlying central place theory (CPT) to enhance understanding of the uneven distribution of invention in the U.S. city system, especially the immense array of specializations that comprise national technological advance. CPT depicts city systems as collections of places in which functions expand in number as city size increases. Small cities have few functions and large cities many. A long-term hierarchical system is successively inclusive if large cities have all of the functions of smaller cities and some additional ones. The functions investigated here are 399 patent classes distributed across 366 U.S. metropolitan areas in the period from 2000 to 2011. Evidence is strong that patent classes with large numbers of awards are widely spread across the city system. This leads to the average sizes of places active in generating patents in the robust classes to be significantly smaller compared with the average sizes of areas that generate patents in unusual classes. Small cities are tied to national technological advance through the generation of patents in the most active and ubiquitous inventive specialties. Inventors in large cities are more likely to invent in unusual domains. Bigger areas are significantly more diversified compared with smaller ones. The system is not, however, strictly successively inclusive. Whereas 88.3 percent of all patent class–area pairs are generated in at least 50 percent of equally sized and bigger areas, only 20.5 percent of pairs are 100 percent strictly hierarchical.

Breandán Ó hUallacháin

Kevin Kane

Sean Kenyon

Invention in the United States City System

美国城市体系中的发明

Traditional space–time paths show the spatiotemporal trajectories of individuals in one to several days. Based on data for such short periods, these space–time paths might not be able to show regular activity patterns, which are pertinent to various types of planning and policy analysis. Travel data gathered for longer periods might capture regular activity patterns, but footprints captured by these data also include irregular activities, introducing noises or uncertainty. Our objective is to determine the representative spatiotemporal trajectories of individuals, accounting for stochastic disturbances and spatiotemporal variability, but using activity data with longer duration. Therefore, we explore using Twitter data, which have relatively low and irregular spatial and temporal resolutions. This article introduces a methodology to construct individual representative space–time paths using various aggregation and spatiotemporal clustering techniques. To depict and visualize spatiotemporal trajectories with uncertain information, we propose space–time cones of variable sizes to reflect the spatial precision of the paths and use colors on the cones to represent the confidence level. To illustrate the proposed methodology, we use the geo-tagged tweets for an extended period. Our analysis indicates that the representative space–time path reasonably describes an individual's regular activity patterns. As visual elements, cones and cone colors effectively show the varying geographical precision along the path and changing certainty levels across different path segments, respectively.

Qunying Huang

David W. S. Wong

Modeling and Visualizing Regular Human Mobility Patterns with Uncertainty: An Example Using Twitter Data

建模与可视化具有不确定性的常规人类移动模式：以Twitter数据为例

What Carl Sagan did for cosmology, Harm de Blij is doing for geography. See, hear, or read him and you will sign on for a continuing course in a subject that he has brought alive like no one else i...

Peter O. Muller

Alexander B. Murphy

Harm J. de Blij, 1935–2014

哈姆·J·德布利, 1935–2014

Coastal urban cities frequently face multiple hazards, including potentially disastrous extreme events. To combat this, vulnerability assessment is essential to developing an effective mitigation strategy. This study proposes a framework to assess the vulnerability of any densely populated urban area to disasters by considering both the population and the assets that are at risk. A set of indicators is also proposed to assess the vulnerability of social and socioeconomic systems, infrastructure, critical facilities, and adaptive capacity. The components of vulnerability were evaluated individually, using an accessible open source geographic information system at a fine 1-km grid scale, providing an insight into the spatial variability of the vulnerability. The optimal weight for individual indicators was assigned using data envelopment analysis to minimize subjective judgment and establish confidence in the results obtained. To decorrelate and reduce the dimensionality of the multivariate data, principal component analysis was performed. The proposed methodology was demonstrated on the twenty-four wards of Mumbai under the jurisdiction of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai and showed the mideastern part of Mumbai as the most vulnerable—mainly due to the increase in population and the marginal workers' ratio. A reduction in social vulnerability has been observed, however, across the city through improvement in the literacy rate and the main workers' ratio.

Mazhuvanchery Avarachen Sherly

Subhankar Karmakar

Devanathan Parthasarathy

Terence Chan

Christian Rau

Disaster Vulnerability Mapping for a Densely Populated Coastal Urban Area: An Application to Mumbai, India

密集人口沿海城市区域的灾害脆弱性制图：以印度孟买为例

There continues to be cross-disciplinary interest in the patterns, extent, and changing contexts of segregation and spatial inequality more generally. The changes are clearly context dependent but at the same time there are broad generalizations that arise from the processes of residential sorting and selection. A major question in U.S. segregation research is how the growth of Asian and Hispanic populations is influencing patterns of segregation and diversity at the neighborhood level. In this article we use a variant of a nearest neighbor approach to map, graph, and evaluate patterns of race and ethnicity at varying scales. We show that using a multiscalar approach to segregation can provide a detailed and more complete picture of segregation. The research confirms work from other studies that segregation is decreasing between some groups and increasing between others, and the patterns, and processes can be described as dynamic diversity. In a series of maps of ethnic clusters and population homogeneity we show how metropolitan areas, represented in this case by Los Angeles, now display patterns of complex living arrangements with multiple groups inhabiting both local neighborhoods and wider community spheres.

William A. V. Clark

Eva Anderson

John Östh

Bo Malmberg

A Multiscalar Analysis of Neighborhood Composition in Los Angeles, 2000–2010: A Location-Based Approach to Segregation and Diversity

洛杉矶社区构成的多尺度分析，2000-2010年：基于位置的隔离与多样性研究

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