Annual Review of Energy and the Environment

▪ Abstract Geoengineering is the intentional large-scale manipulation of the environment, particularly manipulation that is intended to reduce undesired anthropogenic climate change. The post-war rise of climate and weather modification and the history of U.S. assessments of the CO 2 -climate problem is reviewed. Proposals to engineer the climate are shown to be an integral element of this history. Climate engineering is reviewed with an emphasis on recent developments, including low-mass space-based scattering systems for altering the planetary albedo, simulation of the climate's response to albedo modification, and new findings on iron fertilization in oceanic ecosystems. There is a continuum of human responses to the climate problem that vary in resemblance to hard geoengineering schemes such as space-based mirrors. The distinction between geoengineering and mitigation is therefore fuzzy. A definition is advanced that clarifies the distinction between geoengineering and industrial carbon management. Assessment of geoengineering is reviewed under various framings including economics, risk, politics, and environmental ethics. Finally, arguments are presented for the importance of explicit debate about the implications of countervailing measures such as geoengineering.

David W. Keith

G<scp>EOENGINEERING THE</scp> C<scp>LIMATE</scp>: History and Prospect

地理工程气候：历史与展望

▪ Abstract Indian megacities are among the most polluted in the world. Air concentrations of a number of air pollutants are much higher than levels recommended by the World Health Organization. In this paper, we focus on Mumbai and Delhi to characterize salient issues in health risks from particulate air (PM 10 ) pollution in Indian cities. We perform a synthesis of the literature for all elements of the causal chain of health risks—sources, exposure, and health effects—and provide estimates of source strengths, exposure levels, and health risks from air pollution in Indian cities. We also analyze the factors that lead to uncertainty in these quantities and provide an overall assessment of the state of scientific knowledge on air pollution in urban India.

Milind Kandlikar

Gurumurthy Ramachandran

T<scp>HE</scp> C<scp>AUSES AND</scp> C<scp>ONSEQUENCES OF</scp> P<scp>ARTICULATE</scp> A<scp>IR</scp> P<scp>OLLUTION IN</scp> U<scp>RBAN</scp> I<scp>NDIA</scp>: A Synthesis of the Science

印度城市颗粒空气污染的原因与后果：科学的综合

▪ Abstract The first phase of promoting renewable energy in Europe is coming to an end. The timetable of the European Commission's Single Electricity Market (SEM) Directive has been the key recent driver of change within European energy and electricity markets. As mainland European countries have been forced to restructure their electricity industries and reappraise their renewable energy policies, they have been impressed by the results of the England and Wales Renewable Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO). The NFFO is a mechanism for promoting renewable energy that has a competitive basis. However, the United Kingdom is in the process of creating a new policy. As new renewable energy policies have been discussed or put in place in mainland European countries, so these have influenced those of the United Kingdom. Renewable energy policies throughout Europe are converging. This paper analyzes the history behind these changes and underlines the lessons to be learned.

Catherine Mitchell

T<scp>HE</scp> E<scp>NGLAND AND</scp> W<scp>ALES</scp> N<scp>ON</scp>-F<scp>OSSIL</scp> F<scp>UEL</scp> O<scp>BLIGATION</scp>: History and Lessons

英格兰和威尔士非化石燃料义务：历史与教训

▪ Abstract Current guidelines for green buildings are cursory and inadequate for specifying materials and designing ventilation systems to ensure a healthful indoor environment, i.e. a “healthy building,” by design. Public perception, cultural preferences, litigation trends, current codes and regulations, and rapid introduction of new building materials and commercial products, as well as the prevailing design-build practices, pose challenges to systems integration in the design, construction and operation phases of modern buildings. We are on the verge of a paradigm shift in ventilation design thinking. In the past, thermal properties of air within a zone determined heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning specifications. In the future, occupant-specific and highly responsive systems will become the norm. Natural ventilation, displacement ventilation, and microzoning with subfloor plenums, along with the use of point-of-source heat control and point-of-use sensors, will evolve to create a “smart,” responsive ventilation-building dynamic system. Advanced ventilation design tools such as the modeling of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) will be used routinely. CFD will be integrated into air quality and risk assessment models.

John D. Spengler

Qingyan Chen

I<scp>NDOOR</scp> A<scp>IR</scp> Q<scp>UALITY</scp> F<scp>ACTORS IN</scp> D<scp>ESIGNING A</scp> H<scp>EALTHY</scp> B<scp>UILDING</scp>

室内空气质量因素在设计健康建筑中的作用

▪ Abstract Water vapor is the dominant greenhouse gas, the most important gaseous source of infrared opacity in the atmosphere. As the concentrations of other greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, increase because of human activity, it is centrally important to predict how the water vapor distribution will be affected. To the extent that water vapor concentrations increase in a warmer world, the climatic effects of the other greenhouse gases will be amplified. Models of the Earth's climate indicate that this is an important positive feedback that increases the sensitivity of surface temperatures to carbon dioxide by nearly a factor of two when considered in isolation from other feedbacks, and possibly by as much as a factor of three or more when interactions with other feedbacks are considered. Critics of this consensus have attempted to provide reasons why modeling results are overestimating the strength of this feedback. Our uncertainty concerning climate sensitivity is disturbing. The range most often quoted for the equilibrium global mean surface temperature response to a doubling of CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere is 1.5°C to 4.5°C. If the Earth lies near the upper bound of this sensitivity range, climate changes in the twenty-first century will be profound. The range in sensitivity is primarily due to differing assumptions about how the Earth's cloud distribution is maintained; all the models on which these estimates are based possess strong water vapor feedback. If this feedback is, in fact, substantially weaker than predicted in current models, sensitivities in the upper half of this range would be much less likely, a conclusion that would clearly have important policy implications. In this review, we describe the background behind the prevailing view on water vapor feedback and some of the arguments raised by its critics, and attempt to explain why these arguments have not modified the consensus within the climate research community.

Isaac M. Held

Brian J. Soden

Water Vapor Feedback and Global Warming

水汽反馈与全球变暖

Robert H. Socolow

Preface by Robert H. Socolow

罗伯特·H·索科洛的序言

▪ Abstract  From modest beginnings in the 1960s, environmental economics has grown to be a major subdiscipline of economics. It combines traditional work in the field of welfare economics and the theory of economic growth with more recent perspectives on the political economy of choosing policy instruments and the philosophy of sustainable development. The central tenets are that environmental problems have their roots in the failure of economic systems to maximize human well-being, that environmental quality matters for human well-being and for more traditionally oriented economic growth objectives, and that efficient policy can be achieved through incentive design.

David Pearce

Annu. Rev. Energy. Environ.

An Intellectual History of Environmental Economics

环境经济学思想史

▪ Abstract  China is rapidly developing as evidenced by enhanced urbanization and industrialization and greatly increased energy consumption. However, these have brought Chinese cities a variety of urban air pollution problems in recent decades. During the 1970s, black smoke from stacks became the characteristic of Chinese industrial cities; in the 1980s, many southern cities began to suffer serious acid rain pollution; and recently, the air quality in large cities has deteriorated due to nitrous oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and photochemical smog, which are typical of vehicle pollution. Some cities now have a mixture of these. Urban air pollution influences both the health of citizens and the development of cities. To control air pollution and protect the atmospheric environment, the Chinese government has implemented a variety of programs. This paper first reviews the current status of air quality in Chinese cities, especially key cities, then describes the characteristics of some major urban air pollutants, including total suspended particles (TSP), respirable particles 10 microns or less in diameter (PM10), very fine particles 2.5 microns or less in diameter (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2), acid rain, NOx,and photochemical smog. Two specific topics, SO2and acid rain control and vehicle emission control, are used to illustrate the actions that the government has taken and future plans. Finally, a case study of the Chinese capital, Beijing, is presented with a discussion of its main air pollution problems, recently implemented control measures and their effects, and future strategies for urban air quality improvement.

Kebin He

Hong Huo

Qiang Zhang

Urban Air Pollution in China: Current Status, Characteristics, and Progress

中国城市空气污染：现状、特征与进展

[Figure: see text] ▪ Abstract The evolution from an electrochemist was motivated by a growing conviction that Indian science and technology should be reoriented. A cell was created in the Indian Institute of Science in 1974 to initiate and promote work of rural relevance as a weapon against poverty. Surveys led to a detailed empirical study of energy consumption patterns in villages and to the design and construction of rural energy centers. The lessons from this village work are described. The principal outcome of the collaboration with J. Goldemberg (Brazil), T.B. Johansson (Sweden), and R.H. Williams (United States) was the book Energy for a Sustainable World that contributed significantly to the new paradigm for energy. The application of this paradigm resulted in a detailed electricity demand scenario for the South Indian state of Karnataka. Following mandatory retirement from the Indian Institute of Science, the International Energy Initiative (IEI) was set up in 1991 as a Southern-conceived, Southern-led, Southern-located South-North partnership. Persisting personal concerns about the ethical implications of science resurfaced through opposition to India's nuclear tests in 1998 and a visit to the concentration camps at Auschwitz. The associated human dimensions of energy were emphasized in the acceptance speech at Göteborg of the Volvo Environment Prize 2000. The penultimate endgame involved retirement.

Amulya K. N. Reddy

The Evolution of an Energy Analyst: Some Personal Reflections

能源分析师的演变：一些个人反思

▪ Abstract Minimum energy efficiency standards are regulations that require products to meet specific energy efficiency requirements. Standards have been adopted in 17 countries plus the European Union. Standards have been set on more than 35 products, with refrigerators, air conditioners, ballasts, and freezers being the most common. Based on the available evidence, standards appear to be a very effective energy-saving policy. They have reduced energy use substantially in the United States and made good initial progress in other countries. The standards that have been implemented thus far appear to be cost effective to consumers and result in minimal adverse impacts on manufacturers. Available evidence indicates that the costs of actually implementing standards are commonly less than estimates made by manufacturers and government agencies during the standard-setting process. Standards are frequently a useful complement to other policies such as product labeling, incentives, and voluntary agreements. However, standards are not appropriate for all products and situations.

Steven Nadel

Appliance and Equipment Efficiency Standards

器具和设备能效标准

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GEOENGINEERING THE CLIMATE: History and Prospect

THE CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF PARTICULATE AIR POLLUTION IN URBAN INDIA: A Synthesis of the Science

THE ENGLAND AND WALES NON-FOSSIL FUEL OBLIGATION: History and Lessons

INDOOR AIR QUALITY FACTORS IN DESIGNING A HEALTHY BUILDING