Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice

Poor performance in horses is often attributed to rider or training problems or behavioral abnormalities. Riders often fail to recognize lameness. We need to determine if there are differences in facial expression in lame and nonlame horses when ridden, which may facilitate the identification of horses experiencing pain. A previously developed facial expression specific for ridden horses ethogram was applied blindly by a trained analyst to photographs (n = 519) of the head and neck of lame (n = 76) and nonlame (n = 25) horses acquired during ridden schooling-type work at both trot and canter. These included images of 7 lame horses acquired before (n = 30 photographs) and after diagnostic analgesia had abolished lameness (n = 22 photographs). A pain score (0-3; 0 = normal, 1-3 = abnormal) was applied to each feature in the ethogram, based on published descriptions of pain in horses. Pain scores were higher for lame horses than nonlame horses (P < 0.001). Total pain score (P < 0.05), total head position score (P < 0.01), and total ear score (P < 0.01) were reduced in lame horses after abolition of lameness. Severely above the bit, twisting the head, asymmetrical position of the bit, ear position (both ears backward, one ear backward and one to the side, as well as one ear backward and one ear forward), and eye features (exposure of the sclera, the eye partially or completely closed, muscle tension caudal to the eye, and an intense stare) were the best indicators of pain. Application of the facial expression specific for ridden horses ethogram and pain score could differentiate between lame and nonlame horses. Assessment of facial expression could potentially improve recognition of pain-related gait abnormalities in ridden horses.

Joerg A. Auer

Clinical techniques in equine practice

Introduction

引言

Long bone fractures in foals are common and in many cases are amenable to current fixation techniques. The goals of management are first and foremost, appropriate first aid in the field to protect the bone and soft tissues from further trauma. An envelope of intact skin overlying the fracture is a major contributor to a successful outcome. Case selection for open reduction and internal fixation should be based on an understanding of the mechanical characteristics and biologic environment of the fracture zone. With few exceptions, double plate fixation is the treatment of choice to ensure a fixation with the requisite stability and strength to allow unrestricted weight bearing on the repaired fracture immediately after surgery. Major complications include problems of the fracture construct, most commonly infection or instability, and axial limb deformities secondary to reduced weight bearing on the injured limb or direct injury to the growth plate following a physeal fracture.

J.P. Watkins

Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Long Bone Fractures in Foals

马驹长骨骨折的病因、诊断与治疗

Flexural deformities represent deviations in the sagittal plane. They are divided into contractural and hyperextension deformities either congenital or developmental in origin. Diagnosis is usually straightforward and should lead to immediate treatment to prevent secondary complications. Inherited factors such as rapid growth response to high energy nutrition play an important role in the development of the problems; balancing nutritional intake is the key in the prevention of flexural deformities. While congenital contractural deformities are usually managed either by medical means (oxytetracyline IV) or application of special shoes (toe extensions), digital hyperextension deformities are usually handled through swimming exercise or the application of heel extensions—surgical intervention is rarely indicated. Surgical intervention is in most cases the treatment of choice in developmental contractural deformities—desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon for deformities of the distal interphalangeal joint and desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Flexural Deformities in Foals

马驹弯曲畸形的诊断与治疗

Presently the approach to the treatment of angular limb deformities (ALD) is changing. While several years ago early recognition and early treatment was the aim, the recent trend goes more toward a selective approach. Immature foals with incomplete ossification of the precursor cartilage, best identified in the carpal and tarsal region are treated as early as possible with splints to facilitate ossification under even axial loads. Foals suffering from metaphyseal asymmetric growth but normal ossification are frequently observed for several months to allow to correct by themselves. In severe cases, meaning foals with deformities of greater than 12°, early treatment is proposed as well. Foals suffering from varus deformities of the metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal region should be treated before 1 month of age. The reason for this is the early closure of the physis at the approximate age of 3 months and in severe cases the development of an opposing valgus deformity within the proximal phalanx. Treatment techniques include growth acceleration, temporary unilateral growth retardation, and a combination thereof. The positive effect of hemicircumferential periosteal transection and stripping (HCPTS) was recently questioned, but in the mean time the pathway of the corrective mechanisms could be established with the help of molecular biology techniques. As a matter of fact, the experiments conducted to disprove the effect of HCPTS helped to clear up the mechanism. In a few words: the surgical insult near the shorter metaphyseal region upregulates Indian Hedge Hog (Ihh), which reach the physis via afferent blood vessels where they upregulate parathyroid hormones (PTH) and they accelerate the physeal growth locally. With the pathway cleared up, this technique regains part of its former popularity. Growth retardation can be achieved by several surgical techniques, which temporarily bridge the physis on the longer side of the bone until the shorter side has caught up. This type of management is proposed as state of the art in opposing valgus deformities of the proximal phalanx. Once the limb is straight the implants are removed. In bilateral deformities the implants in one limb may have to be removed before the other one. By waiting until the second limb is straight as well, the faster correcting one may have already overcorrected. Recently, radial extracorporal shock wave therapy has been introduced with apparently good results, to achieve a temporary growth retardation in a noninvasive manner. Once the physis is closed, angular limb deformities cannot be corrected any more through growth modulation. The only possible way is one type of corrective osteotomy or ostectomy.

Brigitte von Rechenberg

Treatment of Angular Limb Deformities in Foals

马驹角肢畸形的治疗

Septic arthritis and osteomyelitis is a serious complication of septicemia in foals. Within a given joint, the disease can involve the synovial membrane, the epiphysis, the physis, the metaphysis, and/or the small cuboidal bones of the tarsus or carpus. Early identification and early institution of an aggressive therapeutic protocol can result in a successful outcome. Concurrent systemic illness, type of septic arthritis, multiple joint involvement, pathogenicity of the organism, presence of osteomyelitis, and expected use of the foal are factors that can help formulate a prognosis.

Joanne Hardy

Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Septic Arthritis, Osteitis, and Osteomyelitis in Foals

马驹化脓性关节炎、骨炎和骨髓炎的病因、诊断与治疗

Standing stallions for natural service is a commitment that should not be entered into without careful thought and planning. It can be a very exciting and financially rewarding endeavor, but without proper thought, it is apt to turn into a disaster. Proper facilities, adequate competent staff, and well-managed horses are a must if the operation is to be successful. The lack of planning and preparation has the potential to turn a worthwhile idea into a nightmare that will likely deliver poor results and could become a liability to the industry. Good stallion management and disease control are a must for even the smallest of operations. Proper planning and competent advice will be time and money well spent no matter what the size of the operation that is planned.

Walter W. Zent

Thoughts on Standing Stallions for Natural Service

关于自然交配种公马的思考

Testicular degeneration is a common cause of subfertility and infertility in stallions. The disease can broadly be divided into two categories: those cases resulting from a known testicular insult, and idiopathic (senile or age-related) testicular degeneration. This manuscript describes the problem of testicular degeneration in the equine breeding industry and summarizes what is known about the pathophysiology of the disease. Additionally, the clinical signs of testicular degeneration are reviewed so that the clinician can more quickly and accurately arrive at a diagnosis. Differences in the approach to treatment of testicular degeneration arising from a known cause and idiopathic testicular degeneration are discussed as are differences in prognoses. Finally, the practitioner is provided with practical information on how to more effectively manage affected stallions and what, if anything, can be done to improve reproductive performance of these animals both in the field and in a referral setting.

Regina M. Oristaglio Turner

Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management of Testicular Degeneration in Stallions

种马睾丸退化的发病机制、诊断与管理

Vascular disorders play an important role in male infertility. Various modalities of ultrasound examination can be applied to evaluate testicular vasculature and to objectively measure numerous parameters of testicular perfusion. This paper describes techniques of ultrasound examination of testicular vasculature in the stallion, using gray-scale, color, and power Doppler ultrasound. Results of studies on the normal vascular anatomy in the stallion and its variations, the methods of obtaining most optimal measures of testicular perfusion, and the effects of the physiological and pharmacological factors on testicular blood flow are reviewed. There is a growing body of evidence that evaluation of testicular vasculature has a tremendous clinical relevance and should be included in the diagnostic workup of scrotal diseases.

Malgorzata A. Pozor

Evaluation of Testicular Vasculature in Stallions

公马睾丸血管的评估

A wide variety of infectious bacterial, viral, and protozoal reproductive pathogens have the potential to be transmitted by the breeding stallion. In addition, nonvenereal diseases can also be spread due to the close proximity of mares and stallions during natural service. Disease spread by assisted breeding techniques is also possible. The equine veterinarian must develop a thorough understanding of the relevant diseases and be able to formulate treatment and management plans to minimize the effects of infection on breeding programs.

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Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice

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Introduction

Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Long Bone Fractures in Foals

Diagnosis and Treatment of Flexural Deformities in Foals

Treatment of Angular Limb Deformities in Foals

Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Septic Arthritis, Osteitis, and Osteomyelitis in Foals

Thoughts on Standing Stallions for Natural Service

Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Management of Testicular Degeneration in Stallions

Evaluation of Testicular Vasculature in Stallions

Infectious Diseases in Breeding Stallions

Introduction