Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417) provides an advanced forum on all aspects of applied natural sciences. It publishes reviews, research papers and communications. Our aim is to encourage scientists to publish their experimental and theoretical results in as much detail as possible. There is no restriction on the length of the papers. The full experimental details must be provided so that the results can be reproduced. Electronic files and software regarding the full details of the calculation or experimental procedure, if unable to be published in a normal way, can be deposited as supplementary electronic material.

The journal "Applied Sciences (Switzerland)" (ISSN 2076-3417) provides an advanced forum for all aspects of applied natural sciences. It publishes reviews, research papers, and communications, aiming to encourage scientists to publish their experimental and theoretical results in as much detail as possible. There are no restrictions on the length of the papers, and full experimental details must be provided to ensure reproducibility. If the complete details of calculations or experimental procedures cannot be published in the usual manner, electronic files and software can be deposited as supplementary electronic material.

《Applied Sciences (Switzerland)》期刊（ISSN 2076-3417）为应用自然科学的各个方面提供了一个先进的论坛。期刊发表综述、研究论文和通讯，旨在鼓励科学家尽可能详细地发布他们的实验和理论结果。对论文的长度没有限制，必须提供完整的实验细节，以便他人能够重复实验。如果无法以正常方式发布的计算或实验程序的完整细节，电子文件和软件可以作为补充电子材料存放。

Applied Sciences (Switzerland)

Under dynamic conditions, when the measured magnetic field is projected onto the sensitive axis of the fluxgate magnetometer, it will show strong dynamic characteristics, resulting in errors or delayed interpretation of the measured physical process. Considering the dynamic characteristics of the three-axis fluxgate magnetometer, this paper proposes a series dynamic compensator based on system identification to carry out system identification and modeling of the dynamic characteristics of the three-axis fluxgate magnetometer and proposes a system parameter calculating method based on hybrid optimization of the genetic algorithm and the simulated annealing algorithm (GA-SA). With these methods, not only can the parameter optimization process effectively avoid falling into the local optimal, but they can also greatly improve the search efficiency and shorten the time of solving the optimal solution. Thus, the full-space search ability of the algorithm is improved, and the accuracy of the dynamic magnetic measurements is improved to the maximum extent. The simulation results of the step signal show that the response time is reduced to 18.22% of the pre-compensation time. The standard signal test results of the step signal and sinusoidal signal, respectively, show that the response time of the step signal is reduced to 5.5% and, in the 0.01–10 Hz frequency band, the maximum attenuation decreases from 0.24% to 0.10%, and the phase difference is less than −0.5°. Moreover, the experimental results of the geomagnetic dynamic measurements show that the dynamic compensated data are mostly close to the real geomagnetic field values. In addition, the standard deviation errors are reduced from 95.30/277.35/108.51 nT to 3.41/2.36/2.75 nT in three geomagnetic vector components. The results of this work show the ability of dynamic measurement accuracy improvement of fluxgate magnetometers and are useful for geomagnetic dynamic measurement and related applications.

Zhuo Chen

Zhenxiong Wang

Qi Zhang

Zhongyan Liu

Mengchun Pan

Dixiang Chen

Yujing Xu

Applied Sciences

Dynamic Compensation of a Fluxgate Magnetometer Based on a Hybrid Optimizing Algorithm

After decades of research in the field of high-speed railway technique, technology of running high-speed trains at the velocity level of 350 km/h gradually become mature. It is of great importance to capture the variation regular of aerodynamic parameters in the situation that the high-speed train runs at a higher speed level. The present paper is motivated by this knowledge gap, both field tests and numerical simulations were conducted to help illustrate the basic characteristic of transient pressure loads, micro-pressure wave, as well as the wave propagation inside the tunnel regrading train’s passage and intersection. Results present the major findings as: (1) Transient pressure loads acting at tunnel surface and train body unevenly distributes along the longitudinal, transverse, and vertical directions. Pressure peak along the longitudinal direction occurs nearly at tunnel center and fast decreases from the radiated center to the remote positions. (2) Variation of pressure peak near the tunnel portal in the situation of train’s passage and intersection is limited while its value becomes doubled at the intersection location. Field measurements suggest the maximum pressure load acting at tunnel sidewall at xtin = 200 m and tunnel center being 4.29 and 5.63 kPa, respectively; (3) The maximum value of micro-pressure wave (namely MPW) detected in the field test is approximately 36.73 Pa. Amplitude of MPW at tunnel portal is inversely proportional to its attenuated distance. Through data fitting, an empirical prediction model was established. Outcomes of this paper is anticipated to improve the understanding of tunnel aerodynamic effect regarding higher speed level and its associated problems. Besides, findings of this paper are useful for the future tunnel design.

Yong Wang

Weibin Ma

Jiaqiang Han

Chen Wang

Aijun Cheng

Xu Yang

Hongjie Gao

Field Test and Numerical Investigation of Tunnel Aerodynamic Effect Induced by High-Speed Trains Running at Higher Speeds

To comprehensively investigate the characteristics of aerodynamic pressures on a tunnel caused by the whole tunnel passage of a high-speed train at different speeds, we conduct a series of three-dimensional numerical simulations. Based on the field test results obtained by other researchers, the input parameters of our numerical simulation are determined. The process of a high-speed train travelling through a railway tunnel is divided into three stages according to the spatial relationship between the train and tunnel. Stage I: before train nose enters the entrance; Stage II: while the train body runs inside the tunnel; Stage III: after the train tail leaves the exit. The influences of high-speed train speed on the tunnel aerodynamic pressures of these three stages are systematically investigated. The results show that the maximum peak pressure value decreases with increasing distance from the entrance and increases with increasing train speed in Stage I. There is an approximately linear relationship between the three types of maximum peak pressure (positive peak, negative peak, and peak-to-peak pressures) and the power of the train speed in Stage II. These three types of maximum peak pressure values of the points near tunnel portals increase with increasing train speed in Stage III. Moreover, these three types of maximum peak pressure in the tunnel’s middle section at different train speeds are more complex than those near the tunnel portals, and there is one or more turning points due to the superimposed effects of different pressure waves.

Jianming Du

Qian Fang

Jun Wang

Gan Wang

Influences of High-Speed Train Speed on Tunnel Aerodynamic Pressures

Long-duration aerodynamic pressure fluctuation in high-speed railway tunnels in the post-train stage causes fatigue damage to tunnel structures and facilities. It increases the risk of accidents and requires in-depth research. This complex phenomenon is caused by the superposition of multiple pressure waves generated successively when a train enters/leaves a tunnel. In this study, the spatial–temporal distribution of the pressure state (SDPS) model was developed, and general equations describing the transient pressure state distribution were given. Furthermore, a prediction method for extreme pressures in tunnels and a fast calculation program were proposed based on the SDPS model. The proposed model was verified using field measurements. Using the SDPS model, the worst conditions of pressure fluctuations in tunnels were analyzed. The results show that most of the maximum positive and negative pressures are symmetrical around the midpoint of the tunnel axis and appear alternately around it. When the train/wave velocity ratio M ≤ 0.8 and the train/tunnel length ratio ε ≤ 0.8, the dimensionless position of the maximum peak-to-peak pressure region was concentrated in the region of [0.33,0.67] in the tunnel, indicating the location of potential fatigue damage. The proposed model is helpful in building safe and sustainable transportation systems.

Wenchao Lv

Angui Li

Haihang Cui

Li Chen

General Analytical Method to Predict the Spatial–Temporal Distribution of Extreme Pressure in High-Speed Railway Tunnels in the Post-Train Stage

To improve the performance of the tension control system in gravure printed electronic equipment, it is necessary to study the tension system model of gravure-printing electronic equipment. This paper focuses on the coupling characteristics of multi-span tension systems. Firstly, based on the single-span tension model, the mathematical model of the printing tension subsystem is established and simplified into a general multi-span tension coupling model. Then, using the relationship between the inputs and outputs of the system, the coupling model is simulated using MATLAB/Simulink and verified through experiments on the gravure printed electronic platform. Finally, the coupling relationship and influence laws among multi-physical quantities of the system are analyzed. The research results show that changes in the input web tension of the multi-span system will affect the steady-state tension values of all subsequent spans. Moreover, the speed change in a roller in the multi-span system will not only affect the steady-state tension value of its own span, but also cause transient tension fluctuations in all subsequent spans. The findings of this paper provide an important theoretical basis for the research of the tension system in gravure printed electronic equipment, contributing to the enhancement of printed electronic product quality.

Kui He

Pengbo He

Shifa Li

Jian Li

Xingmei Wei

Study on Multi-Span Tension Coupling Relationship of Gravure Printed Electronic Equipment

This study explores the transformative impact of substituting cement with raw marble powder (RMP) and calcined marble powder (CMP) at varying levels (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%) on the physical and mechanical properties of cement-based composites. Additionally, the influence of two different mixing waters—tap water (TW) and magnetized water (MW)—was assessed to determine their combined effects on the composite performance. The evaluation encompassed fresh properties (initial and final setting times, and consistency) and hardened properties (flexural strength (ffs), compressive strength (fcs), ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), water absorption, porosity, and unit weight) of the composites. The results reveal that CMP-substituted composites significantly outperformed RMP-based counterparts across all indices. Notably, CMP-substituted mortars produced with TW showed a 10.8% to 15.8% increase in 28-day fcs values compared to RMP-substituted mortars, while those prepared with MW exhibited 7.8% to 10.9% higher fcs values than TW-prepared samples. A microstructural analysis via SEM indicated that CMP enhances hydration and microstructure densification, resulting in improved mechanical performance and durability. Overall, the combination of CMP and MW demonstrated a superior potential for producing eco-friendly, high-performance cementitious composites, supporting sustainable construction practices through significant material savings and environmental benefits.

Erdinc Halis Alakara

Ozer Sevim

Gazi Günel

İlhami Demir

Effect of Calcined Marble Powder and Magnetized Water on the Performance of Cement-Based Composites

煅烧大理石粉和磁化水对水泥基复合材料性能的影响

Achieving precise target localization for UAVs is a complex problem that is often discussed. In order to achieve precise spatial localization of targets by UAVs and to solve the problems of premature convergence and easy to fall into local optimum in the original dung beetle algorithm, an error handling method based on the coordinate transformation of an airborne measurement system and the dung beetle optimization with crisscross and 3 Sigma Rule optimization (CCDBO) is proposed. Firstly, the total standard deviation is calculated by integrating the carrier position, the attitude angle, the pod azimuth, the pitch angle, and the given alignment error of the pod’s orientation. Subsequently, the Taylor series expansion method is adopted to linearize the approximated coordinate transformation process and simplify the error propagation model. Finally, in order to further improve the positioning accuracy, a target position correction strategy with the improved dung beetle optimization algorithm is introduced. The simulation and flight experiment results show that this method can significantly reduce the target positioning error of UAVs and improve the positioning accuracy by 20.42% on average compared with that of the original dung beetle algorithm, which provides strong support for the high-precision target observation and identification of UAVs in complex environments.

Yinglei Li

Qingping Hu

Shiyan Sun

Yuxiang Zhou

Wenjian Ying

Research on Optimization of Target Positioning Error Based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platform

基于无人机平台的目标定位误差优化研究

The critical charge of sensitive nodes decreases as transistors scale down with the advancement of CMOS technology, making SRAM cells more susceptible to soft errors in the space industry. When a radiation particle strikes a sensitive node of a conventional 6T SRAM cell, a single event upset (SEU) can occur, flipping in the stored data in the cell. Additionally, charge sharing between transistors can cause single-event multi-node upsets (SEMNUs), where data in multiple nodes are flipped simultaneously due to a single particle strike. Therefore, this paper proposes a radiation-hardened high stability 16T (RHHS16T) cell for space applications. The characteristics of RHHS16T are evaluated and compared with previously proposed radiation-hardened SRAM cells such as QUCCE12T, WEQUATRO, RHBD10T, RHD12T, RSP14T, RHPD14T, and RHBD14T. Simulation results for RHHS16T indicated that the proposed cell demonstrates improved performance in read stability, write access time, and write stability compared to all comparison cells. These improvements in the proposed cell are achieved with higher power consumption and a minor area penalty. Notably, isolating the storage node from the bit line during read operations and the feedback loop between nodes during write operations enables the proposed RHHS16T to achieve enhanced read stability and write stability, respectively. The proposed integrated circuit was implemented using a 90 nm CMOS process and operates at a supply voltage of 1V. Furthermore, RHHS16T provides high immunity against SEUs and SEMNUs. Through its enhanced read and write stability, it ensures reliable data retention for space applications.

Jong-Yeob Oh

Sung-Hun Jo

Radiation-Hardened 16T SRAM Cell with Improved Read and Write Stability for Space Applications

用于空间应用的改进读写稳定性的抗辐射16T SRAM单元

This study examines the hydrogeological response to the 12 September 2016 Gyeong-Ju earthquake (ML 5.8) in the southeastern region of the Korean Peninsula. Using 2D hydro-mechanical coupled bonded particle modeling, we simulated the dynamic fault rupture process to analyze stress redistribution and its impact on pore pressure and groundwater levels (GWLs). The results indicated that compressional areas correlated strongly with pore pressure increases and GWL rises, while extensional areas showed decreases in both. Observations from the groundwater monitoring Well 5 at Gyeong-Ju San-Nae and Well 8 at Gyeong-Ju Cheon-Buk, located approximately 15 km from the earthquake’s epicenter, aligned well with the model’s predictions and interpretation, providing validation for the simulation. These findings highlight the capability of hydro-mechanical models to capture fault-induced hydrological responses and offer valuable insights into the interplay between seismic activity and groundwater systems.

Hyunjin Cho

Se-Yeong Hamm

Jeoung Seok Yoon

Soo-Gin Kim

Jae-Yeol Cheong

Simulation of Groundwater-Level Behavior in Southeast Region of Korea Induced by 2016 Gyeong-Ju Earthquake Using 2D Hydro-Mechanical Coupled Bonded Particle Modeling

使用二维水力-力学耦合键合颗粒模型模拟2016年庆州地震引发的韩国东南地区地下水位变化行为

This study presents a novel methodology for the seismic vulnerability assessment of ground-supported liquid storage tanks, with a particular emphasis on tanks exhibiting deformed shells. The framework is built around the development of a simplified two-degree-of-freedom (2DoF) system, specifically designed to enable efficient probabilistic analysis through incremental dynamic analysis. The 2DoF model is calibrated using detailed nonlinear finite element simulations, which account for fluid–structure interaction and complex geometric effects. This approach allows for a significant reduction in computational effort while maintaining a high level of accuracy in predicting seismic fragility. A key feature of the proposed methodology is the explicit inclusion of deformed tank geometries, which are often encountered in real cases and can critically impact seismic performance. The study identifies and quantifies the effects of these deformations on various damage states, such as local buckling, overturning, and liquid overspill. Fragility curves are developed to characterize the probability of exceeding these damage states under different levels of seismic intensity. The proposed methodology is validated through a representative case study, demonstrating its ability to capture the key features of tank behavior and provide robust fragility estimates. The results highlight the potential of the 2DoF system to serve as a practical tool for seismic risk assessment, enabling engineers and researchers to evaluate tank vulnerabilities more efficiently.

Raihan Rahmat Rabi

Giorgio Monti

Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of Existing Ground-Supported Liquid Storage Tanks with Deformed Shells

现有地面支撑液态储罐带变形壳体地震易损性评估

Abbreviation	Appl. Sci.
Journal Impact	2.60
Quartiles(Global)	PHYSICS, APPLIED(Q2)

Publication Information	Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)，Publishing cycle: Semi-monthly，Journal Type: journal，Open Access Journals: Yes
Basic data	Year of publication: 2011，Proportion of original research papers: 94.96%，Self Citation Rate:12.00%， Gold OA Rate: 99.50%
Journal Fees	$Details
Average review cycle	期刊官网数据：平均first decision to authors: 17.4 days; acceptance to publication: 2.6 days网友分享经验：11 Weeks

Applied Sciences (Switzerland)

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