International Journal of Prognostics and Health Management

Prognostics and Health Management (PHM) has become increasingly popular in recent years, and data-driven methods and artificial intelligence have emerged as dominant tools within the PHM field. This trend is mainly due to the increasing use of sensors and the ability of machine learning techniques to leverage condition monitoring data. However, despite their utility and effectiveness, these techniques are not without drawbacks. One major issue is that data-driven methods often lack transparency in their reasoning, which is crucial for understanding fault occurrences and diagnostics. Additionally, the availability of data can be a challenge. In some cases, data are scarce or hard to obtain, either due to the cost of installing necessary sensors or the rarity of the required information. Lastly, the insights derived from data can sometimes diverge from those obtained through expert analysis and established norms. This contrasts with knowledge-based approaches such as expert systems, which formally organize the knowledge acquired from norms and experts, and then deduce the desired conclusion. While research is increasingly exploring data-driven techniques, industry tends to still frequently employ knowledge-based methods. To fill this gap, this paper offers a detailed survey of knowledge-based and expert systems in PHM, examining methodologies such as propositional logic, fuzzy logic, Dempster-Shafer theory and Bayesian networks. It assesses the integration and impact of these techniques in PHM for fault detection, diagnosis and prognosis, highlighting their strengths, limitations, and potential future developments. The study provides a thorough evaluation of current developments and contributes significant insights into the current capabilities and future directions of knowledge-based techniques in enhancing decision-making processes in PHM.

Kalil Bouhadra

Florent Forest

Knowledge-based and Expert Systems in Prognostics and Health Management: a Survey

基于知识和专家系统的预测与健康管理综述

It is crucial to appropriately maintain automatic ticket gates (ATGs) to keep transportation operating smoothly in urban areas. Although the average failure rate of new ATGs is extremely low, continuous operation for many years might lead to unstable performance due to deterioration, and the need for periodic maintenance to avoid fatal faults might halt operations for extended periods. To detect anomalies at an early stage, “anomaly signs” can be utilized to flag ATGs for maintenance by service engineers before anomalies occur. In addition, to minimize the cost of ATG monitoring, the necessary computing resources should be minimized, which means using only light-weight statistical methods rather than deep learning or machine learning. In this paper, we focus on the automatic separation modules inside ATGs that separate multiple tickets by complicated mechatronic controls because this module is the major cause of maintenance calls from station attendants. We propose a simple anomaly sign detection, called the histogram limitation method (HLM). We evaluated the anomaly sign scores over time with maintenance timing and compared them with the conventional fast unsupervised anomaly detection method, Histogram-Based Outlier Score (HBOS) widely used in various domains. The experimental results using real field ATG monitoring data show that HLM successfully detected anomaly signs before a maintenance call was necessary, which is better performance compared with HBOS. Despite being a simple modification based on HBOS, HLM also provides anomaly sign scores that agree adequately with assessments by maintenance service engineers.

Ken Ueno

Shigeru Maya

Kiyoku Endo

Anomaly Sign Detection for Automatic Ticket Gates by the Histogram Limitation Method

基于直方图限制方法的自动检票闸机异常信号检测

This study proposes a system modeling method for aircraft maintenance program development that adopts condition-based maintenance using aircraft health management (AHM) based on a systems engineering approach, which considers AHM as a system of systems. The metamodel is tailored on the basis of the Unified Architecture Framework (UAF) and the NASA Systems Modeling Handbook for Systems Engineering. It is described using the modeling tool "Balus 2.0" (Levii, Inc). The applicability and effectiveness of a maintenance program adopting AHM is analyzed on the basis of the Maintenance Steering Group-3 (MSG-3), and its effectiveness is evaluated using the proposed system modeling method. The proposed method considers the uncertainty of the aircraft maintenance environment related to airline operations in addition to the uncertainty of the aircraft system. The effectiveness of the proposed system is investigated through a sample problem that considers a tire system using a pressure monitoring system as AHM based on the MSG-3 approach. Finally, the limitations of the proposed method are discussed.

Takuro Koizumi

Nozomu Kogiso

Effectiveness Evaluation Method Using System of Systems Architecture Description of Aircraft Health Management in Aircraft Maintenance Program

基于系统之系统架构描述的飞机健康管理系统在飞机维修计划中的有效性评估方法

In recent years, nondestructive testing for civil engineering structures has become increasingly important. Ultrasonic testing is one of nondestructive inspection methods for civil structures. However, the inspection of civil engineering structures takes much time because of the extensive scope of the inspection. Moreover, in the field of nondestructive testing, there are also concerns about a future shortage of inspectors, so that an innovative effective nondestructive method needs to be developed. This study proposes an automatic defect detection approach using pre-trained convolutional neural network for laser ultrasonic visualization testing. The effectiveness of the proposed method is confirmed by applying it to a concrete structure with a surface defect. Grad-CAM demonstrates that the created CNN model in this study accurately predicts the position of a surface defect of concrete specimens.

Takahiro Saitoh

Tsuyoshi Kato

Sohichi Hirose

Automatic Detection of Concrete Surface Defects Using PRE-TRAINED CNN and Laser Ultrasonic Visualization Testing

使用预训练卷积神经网络和激光超声可视化检测混凝土表面缺陷的自动检测

The diagnosis of complex systems benefits greatly from a differential, multistep approach that narrows down the list of possible conditions or failures that share the same observable effects to a single root cause. We provide a suitable and practically applicable methodology for this. In extension to existing work, it covers all types of diagnostic actions, i.e., the observation of system properties, active testing, and system interventions like providing a dedicated diagnostic input or forcing the system into discriminating states, but also the replacement of components. Combining all these possible steps into one probabilistic and causal reasoning framework, we I) stepwise generate the diagnostic model systematically to correctly cover the interplay of observations and diagnostic interventions, and II) provide decision support based on counterfactuals for the selection of the next diagnostic step, countering the vast number of possible actions that arise in machine diagnostic processes, considering costs of actions to minimize the expected overall cost of the diagnosis.We developed and successfully tried our methodology for diagnosing cyber-physical systems in the high-tech industry, but we found that it supports more processes, such as computing intervention actions for autonomous robots.

Emile Van Gerwen

Leonardo Barbini

Michael Borth

Robert Passmann

Efficient Differential Diagnosis using Cost-aware Active Testing

基于成本感知的主动测试的高效鉴别诊断

PHM continues to show its value by improving operational efficiencies, increasing safety, reducing downtime, and decreasing cost of operations. PHM technologies are therefore not only being deployed as retrofit solutions but are being integrated into new systems as standard practice. Deployment covers areas such as medical equipment, nuclear power plants, aeronautics applications, oil and gas, mining, and many others. As the impact of PHM increases, it is imperative to also consider the potential vulnerabilities that are being exposed. Hackers have famously used Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) systems to sabotage industrial facilities. As such, it is important to understand the exposure to malfeasance to ensure that PHM does not end up being the enabling mechanism for unauthorized access to the system it is meant to keep in running order. It is also important to understand the measures that need to be taken to avoid or respond to an attack. These range from extensive penetration testing to conducting extensive counter-social engineering training, setting up a PHM-specific CERT plan and team in place. This paper discusses various threats that are emerging and that may have to be considered when designing a PHM solution. Additionally, the NIST cybersecurity framework is discussed in the context of PHM. Finally, this paper looks at the diagnostic capabilities of PHM systems to detect cyber security attacks and to contain these threats.

Kai Goebel

Cybersecurity in Prognostics and Health Management

预测与健康管理中的网络安全

Autonomous Centerline Tracking (ACT) enables an unmanned aircraft to be guided down the center of the runway, using a camera-based Deep Neural Network (DNN). ACT is safety-critical. The EASA Guidelines for machine-learning based systems list numerous assurance objectives that must be met toward certification and V&amp;V. We extend our statistical analysis framework SYSAI to support meeting assurance objectives for a complex safety-critical system with AI components, and describe a combination with a runtime monitoring architecture that also supports advanced risk mitigation to support safety assurance of a complex AI-based aerospace system.

Yuning He

Johann Schumann

Statistical Analysis and Runtime Monitoring for an AI-based Autonomous Centerline Tracking System

基于人工智能的自主中心线跟踪系统的统计分析与运行时监控

Recent developments in condition-based maintenance (CBM) have helped make it a promising approach to maintenance cost avoidance in engineering systems. By performing maintenance based on conditions of the component with regards to failure or time, there is potential to avoid the large costs of system shutdown and maintenance delays. However, CBM requires a large investment cost compared to other available maintenance strategies. The investment cost is required for research, development, and implementation. Despite the potential to avoid significant maintenance costs, the large investment cost of CBM makes decision makers hesitant to implement. This study is the first in the literature that attempts to address the problem of conducting a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) for implementing CBM concepts for unmanned systems. This paper proposes a method for conducting a CBA to determine the return on investment (ROI) of potential CBM strategies. The CBA seeks to compare different CBM strategies based on the differences in the various maintenance requirements associated with maintaining a multi-component, unmanned system. The proposed method uses modular dynamic fault tree analysis (MDFTA) with Monte Carlo simulations (MCS) to assess the various maintenance requirements. The proposed method is demonstrated on an unmanned surface vessel (USV) example taken from the literature that consists of 5 subsystems and 71 components. Following this USV example, it is found that selecting different combinations of components for a CBM strategy can have a significant impact on maintenance requirements and ROI by impacting cost avoidances and investment costs.

Joseph Southgate

Katrina Groth

Peter Sandborn

Shapour Azarm

Cost-Benefit Analysis using Modular Dynamic Fault Tree Analysis and Monte Carlo Simulations for Condition-based Maintenance of Unmanned Systems

基于模块化动态故障树分析和蒙特卡罗模拟的无人系统状态维护成本效益分析

Abbreviation	IJPHM
Journal Impact	1.35
Quartiles(Global)	INSTRUMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION(Q3)

ISSN	2153-2648
h-index	29

Publication Information	Publisher: PHM Society，Publishing cycle: ，Journal Type: journal，Open Access Journals: Yes
Basic data	Year of publication: 2010，Proportion of original research papers: 94.44%，Self Citation Rate:7.10%， Gold OA Rate: 96.63%
Average review cycle	网友分享经验：9 Weeks

International Journal of Prognostics and Health Management

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Knowledge-based and Expert Systems in Prognostics and Health Management: a Survey

Anomaly Sign Detection for Automatic Ticket Gates by the Histogram Limitation Method

Effectiveness Evaluation Method Using System of Systems Architecture Description of Aircraft Health Management in Aircraft Maintenance Program

Automatic Detection of Concrete Surface Defects Using PRE-TRAINED CNN and Laser Ultrasonic Visualization Testing

Efficient Differential Diagnosis using Cost-aware Active Testing

Cybersecurity in Prognostics and Health Management

Knowledge-based and Expert Systems in Prognostics and Health Management: a Survey

Statistical Analysis and Runtime Monitoring for an AI-based Autonomous Centerline Tracking System

Cost-Benefit Analysis using Modular Dynamic Fault Tree Analysis and Monte Carlo Simulations for Condition-based Maintenance of Unmanned Systems

Anomaly Sign Detection for Automatic Ticket Gates by the Histogram Limitation Method